Archived from Original Forum

Note:  This is information which came from the Cleveland Clinic's website, however this informative page was removed from the internet.   Although the information regarding Carcinoid Syndrome and Systemic Mastocytosis are somewhat antiquated and new research has given more understanding to both diseases, the information contained within this article is still valid and worth reading and perhaps passing on to your doctors for their aide.  However, in regards to the information on mastocytosis as to it's diagnostic procedures and forms, there is more recent research on this forum which is of better use for doctors.


DEFINITION
Flushing describes episodic attacks of redness of the skin together with a sensation of warmth or burning of the face, neck, and less frequently the upper trunk and abdomen.

It is the transient nature of the attacks that distinguishes flushing from the persistent erythema of photosensitivity or acute contact reactions. Repeated flushing over a prolonged period of time can lead to telangiectasia and occasionally to classical rosacea of the face.1

Flushing can be an exaggeration of a physiological process or a manifestation of a serious condition that needs to be identified and treated. A biochemical work-up of every case of flushing is neither practical nor cost-effective; in this chapter, the author will present guidelines that will help determine when a work-up is warranted.

PREVALENCE
The prevalence of flushing has not been determined.

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Redness of the skin may be due to an increased amount of saturated hemoglobin, an increase in the diameter or actual number of skin capillaries, or a combination of these factors.2 Flushing is due to increased blood flow through the skin, causing warmth, and because of engorgement of the subpapillary venous plexus, redness. The vasodilatation of flushing may be due to a direct action of a circulatory vasodilator substance, for example histamine, or it may be caused by changes in the neurological control of the cutaneous vasculature in the affected areas. In the face, neck, and upper trunk, where flushing is most frequent, the neurological control of vascular tone is predominantly exerted by autonomic vasodilator nerve fibers. These fibers are found in somatic nerves supplying the affected skin, including the trigeminal nerve. Since autonomic nerve fibers also supply eccrine sweat glands, neurally activated flushing is frequently associated with sweating (wet flushing) as opposed to flushing due to circulating vasodilator mediators which frequently does not involve sweating (dry flushing). The presence or absence of sweating has therefore been proposed as a clinical guide to the mechanisms of flushing, although in practice this is not always reliable. Examples of wet flushing are physiological flushing and menopausal flushing. An example of dry flushing is niacin-provoked flushing.1

The diameter of the blood vessels of the cheeks is wider than elsewhere, the vessels are nearer to the surface, and there is less tissue thickness obscuring them. This may explain why flushing occurs in that limited distribution.3 Polycythemia produces the characteristic ruddy complexion, but it may also cause a peculiar coloration termed "erythremia," which is a combination of redness and cyanosis. The tongue, lips, nose, earlobes, conjunctivae, and fingertips especially demonstrate this coloration. Erythremia results when there is a combination of increased amounts of saturated hemoglobin and desaturated hemoglobin.

In some carcinoid tumors, fibrosis of the right side of the heart may lead to a combination of stenosis and regurgitation at the tricuspid valve as well as pulmonary stenosis. If cyanosis occurs, the combination of flushing and cyanosis may produce the reddish cyanotic erythremia.2


FLUSHING SYNDROMES

Physiological Flushing:
Embarrassment or anger may cause flushing in some individuals in whom the threshold for this response may be low or the reaction itself unusually intense; this is also known as blushing.1,2 Explanation and reassurance are usually sufficient. If necessary, propranolol or nadolol may be used to alleviate the symptom.1

Heat causes flushing in many patients, and overheating can lower the threshold to flushing due to other causes such as menopause.3 Overheating such as after exercise or sauna can cause physiological flushing due to the effect of the rise in blood temperature on the thermoregulatory center in the anterior hypothalamus. A similar mechanism is responsible for facial flushing due to hot drinks, which cause a rise in temperature of blood in the oral cavity in turn leading to a rise in temperature of blood perfusing the hypothalamus. The temperature of hot coffee rather than its caffeine causes flushing.

A useful maneuver for patients faced with a brief thermal exposure is to suck on ice chips carried in an insulated cup. This will attenuate flushing for the first 20 to 30 minutes.3

Menopausal Flushing:
About 80% of postmenopausal women experience flushing associated with sweating. A similar syndrome may also occur in men with prostate cancer receiving treatment with gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogs such as buserelin. About 65% of post-menopausal women have hot flushes for 1 to 5 years, 26% for 6 to 10 years, and 10% for more than 11 years. There is considerable variation in the frequency, intensity, and duration of hot flushes within and among individuals. A typical hot flush begins with a sensation of warmth in the head and face, followed by facial flushing that may radiate down the neck and to other parts of the body; it is associated with an increase in temperature and pulse rate and followed by a decline in temperature and profuse perspiration over the area of flush distribution. Visible changes occur in about 50% of women. Each hot flush lasts for 1 to 5 minutes. The primary role of estrogen deficiency has been questioned and a deficit of thermoregulation has been proposed. Rapid estrogen withdrawal rather than a low estrogen level by itself is likely to induce hot flushes.4 Synchronous with the onset of each hot flush is the release of a pulse of luteinizing hormone; this does not seem responsible for the hot flush since flushing can occur after hypophysectomy. The anterior hypothalamus has estrogen and progesterone receptors, and both hormones can be used effectively to treat hot flushes through binding with their respective hypothalamic receptors. Neurotransmitters that may be involved in the pathogenesis of hot flushes include norepinephrine and other noradrenergic substances. The central noradrenergic system in the hypothalamus triggers the hot flushes via α2-adrenergic receptors on the noradrenergic neurons. Thus, clonidine—an α2-adrenergic agonist—effectively alleviates hot flushes through reduction of noradrenergic release.4

Pharmacologic menopause with flushing can be induced by a variety of drugs: 4-hydroxyandrostenedione, danazol, tamoxifen, clomiphene citrate and leuprolide. Certain characteristics suggest the diagnosis of climacteric flushing: drenching perspiration, a prodromal sensation of overheating before the onset of flushing and sweating, and waking episodes at night with the typical symptoms. Alcohol can enhance a menopausal flush.5 Veralipride, an antidopaminergic drug, can cause a reduction in the frequency and intensity of menopausal flushing in premenopausal women pretreated with goserelin (gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist) for endometriosis.6

Flushing Caused by Drugs:
Other medications that can cause flushing are corticotropin-releasing hormone, doxorubicin, and niacin (Table 2). Flushing is a side effect of sildenafil citrate in 12% of patients.7 Systemic administration of morphine can cause flushing of the face, neck, and upper thorax, which is thought to be histamine-mediated.5 Patients can develop facial flushing and/or generalized erythema after epidural or intra-articular administration of glucocorticoids. The exact pathophysiology is unclear but it could be related to distention of the joint capsule.8

Table 2:

Flushing Caused By Drugs
•      All vasodilators  (eg, nitroglycerin, prostaglandins)
•      All calcium channel blockers
•      Nicotinic acid (not nicotinamide)
•      Morphine and other opiates
•      Amyl nitrite and butyl nitrite
•      Cholinergic drugs  (eg, metrifonate, and anthelmintic drug)
•      Bromocriptine used in Parkinson's disease
•      Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
•      Tamoxifen
•      Cyproterone acetate
•      Oral triamcinolone
•      Cyclosporine
•      Rifampin
•      Sildenafil citrate


Flushing Associated with Alcohol Intake:
Certain oriental genotypes show extensive flushing in response to low doses of alcohol. They have been found to have higher plasma levels of acetaldehyde. This abnormality is probably related to a deficiency of an isoenzyme of liver aldehyde dehydrogenase. This population can be detected by using an ethanol patch test which produces localized erythema. A special type of alcohol flush is also associated with chlorpropamide, the oral anti-hyperglycemic agent. Even small amounts of alcohol provoke intense flushing within a few minutes of ingestion. This flushing is not associated with sweating, but in some cases tachycardia, tachypnea, and hypotension may be seen. The flush is mediated by elevated acetaldehyde plasma levels and possibly by release of prostaglandins.

Alcohol ingestion can trigger flushing in carcinoid tumors, mastocytosis, medullary thyroid carcinoma, and certain lymphoid tumors.

Trichloroethylene, a chemical that has been abandoned in recent years because of carcinogenic potential, can cause flushing. When inhaled following ingestion of alcoholic beverages, a striking cutaneous reaction results, consisting in the sudden appearance of erythema of the face, neck, and shoulders—a reaction that has been termed "degreaser's flush." Nausea and vomiting may also occur.5


Flushing Associated with Food:
Eating spicy or sour foods can cause facial flushing. This gustatory flushing is due to a neural reflex involving autonomic neurons carried by the branches of the trigeminal nerve. The flushing may be unilateral.

The flushing of monosodium glutamate (MSG) is controversial. Oral challenge with MSG failed to provoke flushing in volunteers with a history of MSG flushing. Patients should be encouraged to look beyond MSG at other dietary agents, such as red pepper, other spices, nitrites and sulfites (additives in many foods), thermally hot foods and beverages, and alcohol.5 Scromboid fish poisoning (tuna and mackerel) is due to the ingestion of fish that was left in a warm temperature for hours. In addition to flushing, patients with scromboid fish poisoning have sweating, vomiting, and diarrhea. These symptoms are due to intoxication with histamine, which is thought to be generated by histidine decarboxylation by bacteria in spoiled fish.



TO BE CONTINUED.....